Introduction: Human societies have long sought to understand the future, mitigate uncertainty, and make sense of unpredictable events. In Iran, this tendency has manifested itself in various forms, including astrology, horoscope writing, divination (fal), istikhara, illustrated Falnama manuscripts, and consultations with individuals believed to possess knowledge of future events. During the Safavid period, these practices acquired particular significance within a historical context characterized by the consolidation of Twelver Shiism, political transformations, military conflicts, and the continued interaction of Iranian and Islamic cultural traditions. Accordingly, divination and determinism should be understood not simply as popular superstitions but as cultural practices through which individuals and institutions sought to interpret uncertainty and anticipate future developments. This study examines the factors and historical contexts that contributed to the expansion of divination and determinism during the Safavid period through the theoretical framework of metamyth. Metamyth refers to broader semantic and mythological structures that organize and inform smaller myths, narratives, symbols, and cultural practices. The study investigates how religious beliefs, political and social uncertainty, Iranian and Islamic traditions, and artistic and literary production contributed to the development and persistence of these practices. It also explores whether Safavid culture was shaped by a single dominant metamyth or by the coexistence and interaction of Iranian and Islamic cultural structures. In contrast to previous studies that have examined individual aspects of this subject, such as Falnama manuscripts, Qur’anic divination, astrology, and occult sciences, this research brings these dimensions together within an integrated historical, cultural, and metamythological framework.
Methods: This study is fundamental in terms of its purpose and qualitative in nature. It employs a descriptive-analytical method within an inductive approach. Given the historical nature of the subject, statistical sampling was not employed. Instead, the study draws on selected historical documents, literary and religious texts, visual materials, manuscripts, and historical accounts relating to divination and determinism during the Safavid period. The sources fall into four main categories: Safavid historical accounts documenting rulers’ decisions; European travel accounts; texts and visual materials associated with Falnama manuscripts and divinatory practices; and historical evidence concerning astrology, horoscope writing, auspicious timing, and prediction. Sources were selected according to their relevance to predictive practices, their representation of deterministic conceptions, and their references to fate, divine will, sacred powers, or celestial influences.
The analysis involved identifying and classifying relevant evidence, examining its political, social, religious, and artistic contexts, and interpreting recurring patterns through the lens of metamyth theory. The analytical indicators included the form of prediction, the actors involved, the social context, the function of each practice, and its relationship to Iranian and Islamic traditions. Metamyth was employed as an interpretive framework rather than treated as an independently established causal force. Conceptual distinctions among fal, istikhara, astrology, horoscope reading, prediction, and determinism were also maintained throughout the analysis.
Findings: The findings indicate that the expansion of divination and determinism during the Safavid period emerged from the interaction of religious, political, social, cultural, artistic, and intellectual factors. First, religious and ideological developments provided an important context for these practices. The consolidation of Twelver Shiism, the expansion of sacred culture, and the recourse to the Qur’an and sacred figures encouraged interpretations of events in terms of divine will and destiny. Qur’anic divination exemplifies this tendency, although fal and istikhara should not be regarded as identical practices. Second, political and social uncertainty increased the demand for means of anticipating future events. Warfare, political competition, illness, succession disputes, and decisions concerning consequential actions encouraged rulers and other individuals to seek reassurance about possible outcomes. Nevertheless, the available evidence does not establish that Safavid political decisions were primarily based on divination. Rather, such practices constituted one among several strategies for managing uncertainty. Third, Iranian and Islamic intellectual traditions contributed to the continuity of predictive practices. Astrology, horoscope writing, the selection of auspicious times, and celestial interpretation occupied significant positions in courtly and intellectual life. Astrologers were consulted on matters such as travel, coronations, medical treatment, and warfare. Divination through Persian poetry likewise demonstrated the persistence of Iranian literary traditions as a means of interpreting future events. Fourth, artistic and material culture played an important role in transmitting and perpetuating these beliefs. Illustrated Falnama manuscripts, particularly the renowned Falnama-yi Tahmaspi, demonstrate how predictive ideas were incorporated into manuscript production, painting, and book illumination. These works transformed divinatory beliefs into enduring cultural artifacts, facilitating their visual representation and transmission. Art therefore functioned not merely as a reflection of existing beliefs but also as a medium through which they were reinforced and reproduced.
The metamythological analysis further reveals that Safavid culture cannot be explained in terms of a single, fixed metamyth. Qur’anic texts, sacred figures, dreams, and divine will reflected Islamic interpretive structures, whereas Persian poetry, literary traditions, and astrology embodied Iranian cultural frameworks. These structures frequently overlapped and interacted, sometimes generating tensions rather than remaining entirely distinct.
Conclusion: The study concludes that divination and determinism during the Safavid period constituted multilayered cultural phenomena shaped by religious beliefs, Iranian and Islamic traditions, political and social uncertainty, and artistic practices. They cannot be reduced to superstition, religious belief, or political manipulation alone. From the perspective of metamyth theory, the evidence points to the coexistence and interaction of Iranian and Islamic semantic structures rather than the dominance of a single metamyth. The relative prominence of these structures varied according to historical circumstances, social actors, and specific contexts. Islamic elements generally emphasized divine guidance, sacred authority, and destiny, whereas Iranian elements were particularly evident in Persian literary and astrological traditions. Accordingly, fal and related practices functioned not merely as means of predicting the future but also as cultural strategies for interpreting uncertainty, alleviating indecision, and connecting present choices with anticipated futures. The relationship between metamythological structures and social developments should therefore be understood as an interpretive relationship rather than a directly established causal one. Finally, the dispersed nature of the historical, literary, and visual evidence precludes statistical generalization regarding the prevalence of divination throughout Safavid society. The findings should consequently be understood as interpretations of patterns identified in the available sources. Further research drawing on additional Falnama manuscripts, administrative documents, astrological treatises, and manuscript collections could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the historical development and social distribution of these practices.